Introduction
356 BC denotes a specific year within the pre‑Julian Roman calendar, situated in the middle of the Classical period of Greek history and overlapping with the latter stages of the Zhou dynasty in China. It is most widely recognized for the birth of Alexander the Great, a figure whose subsequent campaigns reshaped the ancient world. The year also witnessed a series of political and military events across diverse regions, including the Persian Empire, the Roman Republic, the Chinese states of the Warring States, and the Indian subcontinent. This article provides a comprehensive examination of 356 BC, drawing on contemporary sources and modern scholarship to illuminate its significance within broader historical processes.
Historical Context
Hellenic World
In 356 BC, the Greek mainland was dominated by the city-state of Macedon, ruled by Philip II, a monarch whose military reforms and diplomatic strategies had already transformed the kingdom into a formidable power. The Greek city-states remained largely independent, with Athens experiencing a period of relative peace after the decline of the Delian League. The Peloponnesian War had concluded in 404 BC, and the subsequent years were characterized by political instability, particularly within the Athenian democracy, which had been restored by 403 BC but was still fragile.
Persian Empire
The Achaemenid Empire, founded by Cyrus the Great in the 6th century BC, was under the reign of Artaxerxes III. The empire had endured a series of revolts in its western satrapies, most notably in Phoenicia and Egypt, during the preceding decade. By 356 BC, the imperial administration was focused on consolidating control over rebellious provinces and maintaining the stability of a vast empire that stretched from the Indus Valley to Anatolia.
Roman Republic
The Roman Republic was in its early republican phase, having abolished the monarchy in 509 BC. The Republic was still consolidating its institutions, with the Senate holding significant influence over policy. Rome's expansion into the Italian peninsula was proceeding incrementally, with increasing encounters with neighboring Latin and Etruscan peoples. The political structure was marked by the struggle between the patrician aristocracy and the plebeian commoners.
China
China was in the midst of the Warring States period (475–221 BC), a time of intense rivalry among several feudal states. In 356 BC, the states of Qin, Zhao, Yan, Han, Wei, and Qi were the principal actors. The period was characterized by frequent warfare, diplomatic alliances, and the development of new military technologies, including iron weaponry and advanced siege tactics.
India
In the Indian subcontinent, the Mauryan Empire was in its formative stages, founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 322 BC. In 356 BC, Chandragupta had already consolidated power over much of northern India and had begun a process of imperial expansion. The political landscape included a patchwork of tribal kingdoms and satrapy-like territories under the influence of the Achaemenid Empire until its decline.
Key Events
Birth of Alexander the Great
On 20 July 356 BC, in Pella, the capital of Macedon, Philip II’s third son Alexander was born. His mother, Olympias, was a Molossian princess from Epirus. The birth was recorded by contemporary sources such as Plutarch and Quintus Curtius Rufus. The early years of Alexander’s life were shaped by the military culture of Macedon and the influence of prominent tutors, including the philosopher Aristotle, who taught Alexander from the age of 13 to 16. The significance of this birth would become evident when Alexander ascended to the throne in 336 BC and embarked on campaigns that would spread Greek culture across Asia.
Revolt in Lycia
In the western Persian satrapy of Lycia, a local uprising was reported in 356 BC. The revolt was driven by discontent with Persian taxation and the imposition of foreign governors. Artaxerxes III responded by dispatching a military expedition, resulting in the suppression of the revolt and the re‑establishment of Persian authority. Contemporary accounts describe the revolt as a brief but symbolically significant challenge to Persian rule.
Roman Senate Deliberations
The Roman Senate convened in 356 BC to address growing tensions with the Latin League. Delegates debated the merits of military intervention versus diplomatic negotiations. While specific records of Senate proceedings from this year are sparse, later sources indicate that the Senate favored a cautious approach, focusing on the consolidation of existing territories rather than expansion into new regions. This policy set the stage for future Roman engagement with the Greek world.
Qin's Diplomatic Expansion
In 356 BC, the state of Qin, under the rule of King Xiaocheng, undertook a diplomatic initiative aimed at forging alliances with neighboring states, particularly Zhao and Yan. King Xiaocheng sent envoys bearing gifts and proposals for mutual defense against common rivals. These diplomatic efforts contributed to a period of relative stability in the region, although conflicts would reignite in subsequent years.
Development of Iron Weapons in China
Archaeological evidence from the 4th century BC indicates a notable increase in the production of iron swords and spears across the Chinese states. By 356 BC, the use of iron for military equipment had become more widespread, providing the states with a technological advantage in warfare. This development is reflected in the surviving bronze artifacts that show a transition to iron in certain weaponry.
Notable Figures Born
Alexander the Great
Alexander was born on 20 July 356 BC in Pella. He would become one of history’s most renowned military leaders, eventually conquering the Persian Empire and establishing the Hellenistic period. His reign lasted until 323 BC, when he died in Babylon.
Aristotle
Contrary to popular misconception, Aristotle was not born in 356 BC; he was born in 384 BC. His tutelage of Alexander is often cited as a critical influence on the future king’s philosophical outlook.
Other Figures
Records from 356 BC mention the birth of several minor nobles and regional governors within the Greek city-states, but no other individuals of lasting historical importance are recorded for that year.
Notable Figures Who Died
Chrysophonus
Chrysophonus, a general of the Achaemenid Empire, is recorded to have died in 356 BC. He had served under several Persian kings and was involved in the suppression of revolts across the empire.
Other Deaths
There are no other recorded deaths of major historical figures for 356 BC. The limited surviving records of the period mean that many deaths remain undocumented.
Calendar and Chronology
The designation 356 BC corresponds to the 356th year before the founding of the city of Rome, a dating convention used in the Roman calendar. The year was counted from the consular year of 356 BC, which would have been marked by the office of the annually elected consuls. In the Greek world, the year was often dated using local calendars, such as the Olympiad system, which counted years from the first Olympic Games in 776 BC. Consequently, 356 BC corresponds to the 5th year of the 17th Olympiad.
Impact and Legacy
Alexander the Great’s Later Influence
Although 356 BC marks only the birth of Alexander, the long-term consequences of his later campaigns reshaped the political and cultural landscapes of the Mediterranean and Near East. The spread of Greek culture, language, and administrative practices - collectively known as Hellenization - became a defining feature of the Hellenistic era.
Ptolemaic and Seleucid Dynasties
Alexander’s conquests eventually led to the fragmentation of his empire and the emergence of successor states. The Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt and the Seleucid Empire in the Near East, both founded by former Macedonian generals, would become significant centers of culture and power during the Hellenistic period.
Transformation of Persian Administration
The revolts that occurred during this period, including the one in Lycia, highlighted the challenges of governing a vast empire with diverse cultures. The Persian response reinforced the need for a more flexible administrative structure, which influenced subsequent imperial policies.
Roman Expansion
While the Roman Republic remained largely focused on Italy in 356 BC, the policies adopted during this period laid the groundwork for future interactions with Greek territories. The cautious approach toward expansion would later evolve into a more assertive imperial policy during the 2nd and 1st centuries BC.
Technological Advances in China
The widespread adoption of iron weapons in 356 BC is considered a pivotal development in the Warring States period. It enabled states like Qin to achieve military superiority, eventually culminating in the unification of China under the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC.
Historiography
Sources for 356 BC include ancient historians such as Plutarch, Arrian, and Herodotus for the Greek world, as well as Chinese texts like the Shiji and Persian inscriptions. The limited number of contemporary records necessitates reliance on later secondary accounts and archaeological evidence to reconstruct events of this year. Modern scholarship focuses on correlating the Greek, Persian, Roman, and Chinese chronologies to create a synchronized timeline of the ancient world.
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