Introduction
The EAN‑13 (European Article Number) is a 13‑digit barcode symbology used worldwide for the identification of trade items. It is the most common form of the International Article Number (EAN) system and is employed in retail, logistics, and various supply‑chain contexts to encode unique product identifiers. The format is governed by the global standards organization GS1, which defines the allocation of digits, encoding rules, and application requirements. EAN‑13 barcodes are read by laser or imaging scanners and are fundamental to electronic point‑of‑sale (EPOS) systems, inventory management, and automated identification processes.
History and Background
The concept of barcodes dates back to the 1940s, but the first practical system was developed in the 1970s by a group at the U.S. company Sears, Roebuck & Co. The system, initially called the “Product Identification Code,” was later refined into what became known as the Universal Product Code (UPC). In 1973, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) adopted the UPC as ISO/IEC 15420. Around the same time, European manufacturers and trading partners required a numbering system that could accommodate a larger set of items and a broader set of country codes. Consequently, the EAN‑13 was introduced in 1977, expanding the digit count from 12 to 13 to support more unique identifiers and incorporate country code allocation.
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) further formalized the system with ISO/IEC 15415, while the global trade network formed the GS1 alliance (formerly the International Article Numbering Association, IANN) to manage the allocation and governance of EAN codes. GS1 established a centralized registry, defined prefix ranges for each country, and issued guidelines for the creation of manufacturer and product numbers. Today, EAN‑13 remains the most widely deployed barcode standard in commerce.
Standard Structure
Prefix / Country Code
The first three digits of an EAN‑13 code are designated as the country or prefix code. This segment does not necessarily represent the geographic location of the manufacturer; instead, it indicates the national GS1 member organization responsible for assigning the code. For example, the prefix “0” is used by the United States and Canada, while “44” identifies the United Kingdom. The assignment of prefixes is maintained by GS1 to ensure unique identification across borders.
Manufacturer Code
Following the country code, a variable-length manufacturer (or company) code is allocated. The length of this segment depends on the specific prefix and the size of the manufacturer’s product range. A larger manufacturer may receive a shorter manufacturer code, allowing more digits for product identifiers, whereas a small company may have a longer manufacturer code and a shorter product code. The combination of country code and manufacturer code must be unique across the global GS1 system.
Product Code
The product code is the segment that identifies a specific item within the manufacturer’s portfolio. It is usually a 5- or 6-digit number, but the length can vary depending on the overall allocation scheme. This segment must be unique within the scope of the manufacturer code. It is often internally aligned with product families, variations, or packaging sizes.
Check Digit
The final digit of the EAN‑13 is a check digit calculated using a weighted modulo 10 algorithm. This digit allows scanners to detect errors in digit transcription or barcode damage. The algorithm assigns weights of 1 and 3 alternately to the preceding digits, sums them, and then determines the remainder when divided by 10. The check digit is the number required to bring the total sum to the next multiple of ten.
Encoding Rules
Digit Patterns and Parity
The EAN‑13 is encoded in a sequence of bars and spaces. The first digit, which is not displayed, determines the parity pattern of the first six digits. There are four possible parity patterns, each corresponding to one of the digits 0–3. For instance, a first digit of “0” indicates that all six left-side digits use the “odd” parity encoding, whereas a first digit of “1” signals a mixed pattern of odd and even parities. This design provides a compact representation of the entire number while allowing the barcode to be read reliably by scanners.
Encoding of Left and Right Halves
The barcode is divided into two halves, separated by a start, middle, and stop pattern. The left side encodes the first six digits (after the first digit) using a combination of odd and even parity patterns, while the right side encodes the last six digits using a uniform “odd” parity pattern. Each digit is represented by a sequence of seven modules, comprising bars (black) and spaces (white). The standard specifies exact module patterns for each digit and parity combination, ensuring consistency across all implementations.
Check Digit Calculation
- Starting from the leftmost digit (excluding the check digit), assign weights of 1 and 3 alternately to each of the 12 digits.
- Multiply each digit by its weight and sum all results.
- Compute the remainder of the sum when divided by 10.
- Subtract the remainder from 10 to obtain the check digit; if the remainder is zero, the check digit is also zero.
This algorithm ensures that any single-digit error or most adjacent-digit transpositions will be detected.
Production and Usage
Implementation in Retail
In the retail sector, EAN‑13 barcodes are affixed to consumer packaging, allowing point‑of‑sale systems to capture product information quickly. Retailers use the barcodes to update inventory levels, trigger reordering, and manage price lists. The uniformity of the standard permits scanning across different vendors and geographic locations without custom hardware adjustments.
Integration in Inventory Systems
Enterprise resource planning (ERP) and warehouse management systems (WMS) incorporate EAN‑13 data to automate the tracking of goods. Scanners record the code during receiving, storage, picking, and shipping stages. The 13-digit format enables a unique key for each item, which can be cross-referenced with database records containing product attributes such as description, weight, shelf life, and compliance information.
Barcoding Hardware
Manufacturers produce a range of scanners and label printers designed for EAN‑13. Laser scanners read the barcode by emitting a focused beam, while imaging scanners capture a digital image. The devices interpret the pattern of bars and spaces according to the EAN‑13 encoding rules, extract the digit sequence, and validate the check digit. Label printers use direct thermal or ink‑jet technology to print high‑contrast bars, ensuring reliable scanning in retail environments.
Variants and Related Standards
UPC‑A
UPC‑A is a 12‑digit version of the EAN system used predominantly in North America. It shares many encoding characteristics with EAN‑13 but lacks the initial country code. UPC‑A can be considered a subset of EAN‑13, and a UPC‑A number can be converted to EAN‑13 by prefixing a “0” and recalculating the check digit.
EAN‑8
EAN‑8 is an eight‑digit barcode intended for small packages that cannot accommodate a 13‑digit barcode. It employs a different encoding scheme but retains the check digit calculation. EAN‑8 codes are widely used for small consumer goods such as cosmetics, spices, or single‑use items.
ITF‑14
International Trade Item Number (ITF‑14) is a 14‑digit barcode used to identify trade packages, cartons, or pallets. It extends the EAN system by adding a prefix that indicates packaging type, allowing logistics providers to track containers as they move through supply chains.
GS1 Standards
GS1, the governing body for barcode standards, publishes a suite of related documents. These include guidelines for GS1 Company Prefix allocation, Application Identifiers (AIs) for data matrices, and specifications for digital identification such as QR codes. GS1 also provides the framework for integrating barcodes with global trade data streams.
Applications in Industry
Retail
In retail, the EAN‑13 barcode is integral to the sales process. It enables real‑time pricing, stock verification, and customer checkout efficiency. The uniform format allows retailers to process items from diverse suppliers with a single scanner configuration.
Logistics
Logistics providers use EAN‑13 barcodes to track consignments from origin to destination. The barcode data is incorporated into transportation management systems (TMS) to monitor freight, manage customs documentation, and verify delivery compliance.
Healthcare
Medical device manufacturers assign EAN‑13 codes to equipment, while hospitals use them to manage inventory of supplies such as syringes, bandages, and pharmaceuticals. The standard aids in preventing mix‑ups and ensuring traceability for regulatory compliance.
Pharmaceuticals
In the pharmaceutical sector, the EAN‑13 barcode is mandatory for many products in jurisdictions such as the European Union and the United States. It supports anti‑counterfeiting measures, batch identification, and expiration date management. The barcodes are often integrated with unique drug identification (UDI) systems.
Food Industry
Food producers assign EAN‑13 barcodes to packaged goods. The barcodes provide a reliable mechanism for supply‑chain transparency, shelf‑life monitoring, and nutrition labeling verification. In many regions, the barcode is required for products sold in supermarkets.
Technical Considerations
Print Quality
For accurate scanning, barcodes must adhere to strict dimensional tolerances. The ratio of bar width to space width is typically 1:1, and the overall module width (the smallest repeating unit) must be consistent. Printing on flexible materials, such as foil or plastic, demands careful calibration to avoid smearing or blurring of bars.
Scanner Technology
Laser scanners detect barcodes by measuring reflected light intensity across the barcode area. Imaging scanners capture a pixelated image and process it via software algorithms. Both technologies rely on proper illumination and ambient light control to ensure reliable read rates. Modern scanners incorporate autofocus and auto‑gain controls to adapt to varying bar code sizes and environmental conditions.
Error Detection
The check digit offers basic error detection for single-digit mistakes or transposition errors. However, it cannot detect all error types. To improve reliability, some systems employ redundant encoding, such as combining the barcode with a data matrix or incorporating an additional checksum within the data stream.
Security Aspects
Barcodes are inherently vulnerable to tampering, counterfeiting, or mislabeling. Physical security measures include embossing, holographic overlays, or RFID tags appended to the product. Digital security is achieved through encryption of the data stream or embedding cryptographic signatures in the barcode, though this requires specialized scanners and reader software.
Global Management and Governance
GS1 Organization
GS1 is a global non‑profit that develops and maintains the standards for supply‑chain identification. GS1 members include manufacturers, wholesalers, retailers, and logistics companies. The organization assigns GS1 Company Prefixes, publishes application notes, and coordinates harmonization efforts across borders.
Registration Process
To obtain an EAN‑13 code, a company applies for a GS1 Company Prefix through its national GS1 member organization. The application includes business verification documents and information on the intended use of the barcode. Once approved, the company receives a prefix and guidelines for constructing unique product numbers.
Licensing
GS1 licenses the use of its numbering system to member organizations. The license covers the right to assign EAN‑13 numbers and to incorporate them into products. Members must adhere to GS1’s Code of Practice, which stipulates standards for data quality, barcode placement, and compliance with local regulations.
Future Developments
Digital Representation
With the rise of digital commerce, EAN‑13 barcodes are increasingly embedded in electronic documents such as invoices, purchase orders, and digital shelf labels. Digital representation facilitates real‑time inventory updates and enhances data accuracy across online and offline channels.
QR Code Alternatives
Quick Response (QR) codes and other 2‑D barcodes offer higher data density and can store additional information such as URLs or JSON payloads. While QR codes are not direct replacements for EAN‑13 in retail, they complement the system in contexts where more complex data encoding is required, such as mobile checkout or marketing campaigns.
RFID
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tags provide non‑line‑of‑sight identification and can store more data than a conventional barcode. RFID is increasingly used in high‑value or high‑volume inventory environments. Nonetheless, EAN‑13 barcodes remain the de‑facto standard for point‑of‑sale because of their low cost and universal acceptance.
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